When analysing Spain, this century is most notorious with the countries establishment as a superior nation. Yet it’s debate whether this truly occurred, as historians like JH Elliot have stated “Spanish society drove itself forward” others disagree, like Solsten, speculating that “The sixteenth century was a period of unremitting decline”. This 100-year time span presents a combination of both failures and successes, leaving us conflicted on whether this century was truly golden.
Though the country saw a radicalisation in government, expansion of their empire and a promising religious reformation; the issues in the economy and the disastrous effects of foreign policy cause us to doubt how significant these successes truly were. Analysing further into the country’s expeditions and financial situation suggests why Spain may have been less golden then we have been led on to believe. A crucial factor within this period was the development of the Spanish monarchy throughout this century, which was achieved through the the fields of Spanish government and politics.
The golden age started with the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella following their marriage in 1469, which was shortly followed by Isabella’s coronation in 1474. These monarchs brought forward an idea of unification, as in 1479 they both became monarchs of their respective separate realms which triggered this process of amalgamation. Not only did they successfully change Spain’s position in Europe with their Treaty of Alcacovas in September 1479 which removed Spain from conflict, they also enabled great changes to be made in Spanish government.
The appointment of government officials improved, as an elite administration system was formed in 1493 which ordered that every member must be of an educated background. Arguably the most beneficial aspect was the introduction of the Santa Hermandad in 1476, which was a peace brotherhood set up in Castile which rapidly improved Spain’s justice system. Improvements in the Cortes succeeded this, with 83 laws passed by 1505 and by 1515, 86 Castilian towns came under the influence of Ferdinand, a huge step in modernising the Spanish government.
This factor could’ve been the trigger of Spain’s golden age as these successes continued into Charles l’s reign. This rule enabled advances in the ‘Council of War’ in 1522 which effectively advised Charles on the military issues of Spain. Developments followed in the ‘The Great Council of Castile’ and ‘The Council of Aragon’ which saw tightening of officials, and progress in the field of administration. As well as other important councils, such as the ‘Council of Finance’ (1522) which beneficially assumed responsibility of Charles’ finances and the ‘Councils of Supreme’ and ‘Inquisition’ which greatly unified the Kingdom of Spain.
Therefore, these changes conducted by Ferdinand and Isabella, who were renowned by Niccolo Machiavelli (1527) for being “the most skilful diplomats” which were sustained by Charles, allowed Spain to enter the seventeenth century with a refurbished governmental system. However, these successes only span the first quarter of this century, the fact that Phillip mostly failed in continuing this success provokes doubt on whether an age of modernisation did occur.
Contemporary sources such as Ishikawa’s interpretation support this idea, speculating how the monarchy suffered domestically due to the consequences of war. Her argument uses the failures made in foreign policy to emphasise her continuing belief throughout her book, that the age only seemed Golden and lacked the successes to fulfil this image. “If the start of Charles V’s reign marked the stunning ascendance of Spain, then the close of Phillip Il’s may likewise be seen as a major turn in the fortunes of the monarchy.
The monarchy continued to dominate European and American affairs. Yet the signs of decline like the military defeats-began to show by the final years of the sixteenth century, a period of relentless attacks for the monarchy. ” The origin of this interpretation is helpful as Ishikawa’s had full access to the archives as the archives of the Indies in Seville were released in 1976 followed by the archives in Hatfield House Library in 1999, promising us truthful comments.
However, using hyperbolic language like “relentless” and “stinging” suggests she has exaggerated her content, thus decreasing its convincingness. This along with her extensive research into the Chinese communist party in her other books suggest there are Marxist influences over her writing, which possibly makes her more sympathetic towards the Spanish people which is helpful as she has considered the entire Spanish population when conveying her argument.
The interpretation convinces us that there was no golden age as we can support her claims with the constant failures of Charles’ and Phillip’s foreign policy. For example, Phillips humiliating defeat of the Armada against Elizabeth l’s seemingly nonthreatening English navy in August 1558, merely strengthened the Protestant cause which Phillip strongly opposed. The interpretation can also be supported with how Phillips issues with Pope IV caused England to lose Calais in 1558, which greatly impacted their power status within Europe.
Likewise, the interpretation’s useful as like the beliefs of Parker (1998) who stated “Philip failed to recognise that his gains represented threats to others” it hints to Phillips naivety in his failed military expeditions. This includes the continued mistakes in Italy and France in the 1550’s; crucially in the war of Religions between 1564 and 1598 which resulted in Phillip having to cowardly retreat to Protestantism in 1594. On the other hand, Lotherington contradicts this view suggesting that “Philip’s policy ensured peace was eventually secured” showing success as it offered Spain security.
His belief can be supported with the Battle of Fontaine-Francaise which finally ended conflict with France with the Edict of Nantes and Peace of Vervins in May 1598. This shows that Ishikawa has only mentioned the negatives to enhance her viewpoint. Though considering Lotheringtons argument, the fact Phillip could only achieve security and not expansion supports the idea that Phillip led a dismal foreign policy, thus supporting Ishikawa’s belief.
Yet, in terms of the century, Ishikawa disregards the successes of foreign policy, like Charles victory in the Philippines and Turkev. as well as Ferdinand and Isabella’s victories over the Mediterranean in 1492, showing how she’s subjectively structured her argument to give off a solely negative view. Despite this, in terms of the individual reign of Phillip, the interpretation informs us greatly on his failures regarding achieving international glory, thus convincing us that a golden age failed to constitute due to its continuous policy downfalls.
Though, overlooking critical factors like religion provides us with an unrepresentative argument, the interpretations detail regarding the failures within foreign policy convinces us that the “military defeats” ensured no golden era arose. Another factor which could give Spain this golden title was the exploration of the New World. Ferdinand and Isabella triggered this key aspect of history, once they funded Christopher Columbus’s expedition to the Americas in 1492.
From this point on, numerous discoveries were made by the Spanish, extending their empire and thereby convincing us that a form of golden age was instituted. Between the years of 1492-1493, Columbus extended his research due to developments in technology, discovering and inhabiting the Bahamas, Trinidad and Venezuela. Spain’s interest in expanding their nation continued with Vasco de Gama’s arrival at southern India in 1498, followed shortly by the series of expeditions of South America in 1499.
Spain underwent major expansion once Balboa crossed the Pacific Ocean and invaded Algiers and Tripoli in 1510, followed romptly by Cordoba’s exploration of Mexico in 1517 then Pizarro’s conquest of Peru in 1531. These successes continued throughout the century through to the latter years of Phillip’s reign with the capture of St. Quentin in 1554 and St. Augustine in August 1565. Though Charles’s reign had little concern for the New World, Phillip continued exploration into North America, with his control over ten outposts in Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina (1565-1567); as well as continuing exploration of the North Carolina and Virginia coasts into 1570.
The fact these explorations expanded their empire and enabled their control over the vast areas of North America and Brazil strongly suggests the country formed a golden age as they expanded trading throughout Europe and transformed their reputation. In conclusion, the successes of this century were only effective as they masked the failures of economic decline and futile foreign policies.
Analysing this period suggests that only in the fields of government and the New World did Spain prestigiously establish themselves within Europe, yet even faults can be seen in these accomplishments. Therefore, it cannot be argued that this period was golden for Spain as the mistakes regarding religion and the economy, proved to hinder its development. Although it seemed prestigious when analysing the changes they made, the consequences of these monarchs actions ensured that a golden age failed to occur.