At the sociocultural level, interactions affect variations in skin pigmentation (Kittles, 1995). Various social, cultural, and political transformations that emerged in the 20th and 21st centuries highlight the effects of socioeconomic outcomes, especially with African Americans. Lighter-skinned African Americans tend to have higher status, occupations, higher educational attainment, and greater achievements in life. In America, skin color bias that resulted to the dark history of slavery and racial oppression intensify the sociocultural levels of color variations.
Numerous black women were raped by their white masters, which resulted in fairer-skinned offspring; thereby resulting to greater skin color variations (Hill, 2002). Sexual Selection and Skin Color Aside from the biological, ecological, and sociocultural levels of the evolution of skin color variation, one theory poses a strong explanation for the evolution and variation of human skin color: sexual selection. This includes mate choice, attractiveness and marriage systems. Mate Selection and Attractiveness
Numerous studies have concluded that skin color is an important criterion for mate choice in humans (Banerjee, 1985; Darwin, 1871; Feinman & Gill, 1978; Roberts & Kahlon, 1972). In the theory of mate selection, attractiveness is an asset. Through social learning, individuals recognized that certain physical characteristics gain more positive sentiments than others. These physical characteristics have become more valued in society and have been used to judge others and also to judge one’s self. They rate or compare one’s attractiveness to the highest of attractive standards (Walde & Bielitz, 2005).
Aside from facial shape and form, people tend to judge female facial beauty in terms of visible skin color. In general, people tend to standardized beauty in terms of lighter skin color (Fink, Grammer, & Matts, 2006). However, Charles Darwin argued against the conception of a universal standard of beauty. Rather, he suggested that each race possesses its own innate ideal standard of what is beautiful and their offspring inherit these tastes. Through this inheritance, men of each race tend to prefer what they are accustomed to. For example, European men who are accustomed to light skin admire this trait when strongly developed by women.
On the other hand, men who are accustomed to black skin tend to admire this if strongly marked (Aoki, 2002). Yet, as mentioned earlier, there are sociocultural factors that provide counterargument to Darwin’s theory on non-standard conceptualization of beauty. For example, the blacks generally have negative evaluation of dark skin pigmentation. They themselves reported belief that dark skin is undesirable, while light skin is desirable. Both in judging other’s attractiveness and self-esteem, the blacks reported low attractiveness of dark skin even if they are accustomed to seeing dark skin.
In fact, they are targeted markets for skin lighteners, skin bleaches, and other products that induce lighter skin (Urdy, Bauman, & Chase, 1971). In general, pale-skinned women are considered to be more attractive than darker skinned women. In different cultures in North America, Europe, and Asia, women who have lighter skin tone are considered more attractive for men. Contrastingly, dark women are observed to have high levels of self-preference. Men show stronger preference for lighter skin tone than women do (Sorokowski, Sorokowska, & Kras, 2013).
For example, African American men consider fair-skinned women to be the most sexually desirable. This is explained by their adoption of the Eurocentric beliefs linking whiteness to femininity. In contrast to the notion of strong self-preference among African American women, some studies argue that Black women use painful skin bleaches to have fairer skin in order to be perceived as feminine and attractive (Hill, 2002). However, more recent studies show that in some Western countries, darker skin in women is considered to be more attractive.
In the modern Western culture, darker skin tone indicates healthy life style and social status (Sorokowski, Sorokowska, & Kras, 2013). Moreover, in an extensive study of the relationship between race and attractiveness, it was found out that mixed-race faces are perceived to be more attractive than either White or Black faces. This preference may be attributed to genetic idea of hybrid vigor or heterosis. Offspring of parents coming from diverse genetic background are perceived to be healthier than those with similar genetic origin.
In the end, these studies conclude that humans tend to be more attracted to genetic fitness of a mate rather than their ability to produce genetically-fit offspring (Lewis, 2011). Caucasians are generally more vulnerable to UV-induced injuries and episodes of sunburn and freckles. Being light-skinned is also associated with increased risk for skin cancer, photoaging, and photoimmunosuppression. Higher resistance to organisms by dark-skinned humans gives them favor in terms of mate selection (Fink, Grammer, & Matts, 2006).
These findings agree with Darwin’s argument that in terms of natural selection, dark skin is favored; while in terms of sexual selection, fair skin is an advantage. In sum, sexual selection, despite the evolution of the definition of attractiveness due to socio-cultural factors, remains to be relevant in the past and present times. Marriage Systems Marriage systems, polygamy and monogamy, are also associated with the variation of skin color. In sub-Sahara, it was observed that dark-skinned people tend to be polygamous. On the other hand, in the Mediterranean where people generally have lighter skin, most of them are monogamous.
These differences in marriage systems and color variation are attributed to female food gathering. In Africa, African women participate in food gathering and contribute more food to the family compared to European women. Hence, having more wives is equated with more food supply. Moreover, protection against UV rays and microorganisms that colonize the skin is most important in cultures that practice polygamous marriage system. In other words, the preference for light-skinned women is of selective importance to monogamous groups only (Manning, Bundred, & Mather, 2004).
There are also observed constraints to polygamy in certain areas in the tundra region. Women have few opportunities for food hunting and gathering. Likewise, death rates are also high among young men. From 18th to 20th centuries, women outnumbered men at all ages because of the hunting practices resulting in high mortality rates among men. With the surplus of women, sexual selection in terms of skin color became less prominent. In the European nations, the prevalence of polygamy also decreased because of the emergence of Christianity which prohibited multiple-marriages (Frost, 2006).
Thus, as time passed, color became less significant in marriage systems. Conclusion The evolution of skin color is difficult to study because of the lack of tangible evidence. We can only trace back the biological, ecological, and sociocultural factors that affect color variations in the human race. Yet, we cannot be certain as to whether the skin of the origins of humans was black or white. The present assumption is that the modern humans who originated in sub-Saharan Africa were black, but were already in the process of evolving into lighter skin color (Aoki, 2002).
Nevertheless, we are certain that biological, ecological, and sociocultural factors all have important roles in the development of such variations. Apart from these factors, Charles Darwin proposed strong theory about color variations: the theory of sexual selection. The theory of sexual selection in terms of mate selection and marriage systems encompass various functions of the skin as a form of vanity or beauty, health, age, and youthfulness as criteria of men when choosing a mate.
From the research presented above, we come up with the following conclusions: • Skin color remains to be a highly influential factor in mate selection • Skin color is no longer relevant in marriage systems in present context • Black males and males in general prefer light-skinned females as mates • Black females either have strong self-preference or low self-esteem based on their skin color • Due to increased variations in terms of skin color, mixed-race skin color has also become more attractive to both men and women for both sexes.
