Art is a complicated subject in the archaeological record because of how inherently vague the definition of art is. There are various ways and mediums in which to express creativity, making it difficult to interpret the different forms, or to understand and deduce the meaning or reasoning behind it, especially before the invention of writing and throughout various extinct cultures. There is also a problem in interpreting artistic expressions of the past based on the classifications and aesthetics of the present day, rather than the context of the people at the time of the piece’s original creation (Scott, 2006).
Therefore, understanding the archaeological context of the culture being investigated is vital in order to identify manifestations of art and extrapolate meaning from ancient materials in the archaeological record. It is important to examine prehistoric art, because expressions of creativity can provide insight into the beliefs and lifestyle of people long gone, particularly the people of North America before European contact.
The Eurocentrism in primary and secondary education of the West has created widespread, false notions that the people of America before colonization were primal with little social organization, no technology, and little to no impact on their environment. With knowledge and further investigation of past settlements, these misconceptions will continue to be disproven, and rightful credit to these multifaceted peoples can be given. Evidence of material culture of any kind from the archaeological record aids in this quest, including pieces of art.
Art can also show trends, classism or social status, and traditions passed throughout generations, via similarities or seriation of materials, symbols, and designs throughout the archaeological record. The goal of this paper is to investigate an important question; is there material evidence of artistic expression in the Prehistoric cultures of the Arctic region of North America? To understand the context of these potential pieces of art, the prehistoric lifestyle of these people must be described.
The Arctic cultures of North America cover the vast northern expanse between the chain of Aleutian Islands extending from Alaska in the Pacific Ocean to the frosty island of Greenland that resides in the Atlantic. Around 9000 BC, rising sea levels disrupted extensive communication between Siberia and Alaska, creating the region as it is today. Residents of the Arctic were hunter-gatherers, and gradually exploited sea and land mammals, and fish as history progressed.
The harsh northern climate employs extreme, long winters, and short summers, leaving little vegetation to utilize on the tundra. Stone artifacts define the Paleo-Arctic; micro blades, cores, leaf shaped bifaces, scrapers, and graving tools were employed in hunting and craftsmanship. The bow and arrow was also employed for hunting as early as 6300 BC in Canada. The Arctic Natives were semi nomadic, and made use of temporary hunting camps while following large land and aquatic mammal/fish migrations.
There is a general consensus that there is very little evidence of art in the Canadian Arctic before the Dorset culture period, which appears around 500 BC (Canadian Eskimo Arts Council, 1971). One of the few artifacts from the area and Prehistoric period is a fleshing knife that was discovered in Western Canada on Banks Island at a hunting camp site called Umingmak. It is believed that the knife depicts a myth via zoomorphic carvings; a bear on one side, and the transformation of the bear’s ribs into a caribou (Fitzhugh et. Al. , 2009).
The interpretation of a myth once again challenges the definition of art via myth and storytelling. These narratives are often passed from generation to generation, but are not tangible objects, once again bringing into question what is considered art. An important find from Prehistoric Canadian culture is the oldest artifact portraying human likeness of the arctic, a maskette carved from ivory from over 3500 years ago from Devon Island, an uninhabited island in Northern Canada.
The engravings on the mask are interpreted as wrinkles from old age, or tattoos, inferring the possible presence of permanent body art in the Prehistoric Arctic (McGhee, 2001), which is difficult to prove as human flesh is delicate and rarely preserves over extended periods of time. Nevertheless, it once again questions the classification of art, as tattoos and body modifications become more prevalent throughout the world. There is little proof Prehistoric Aleut pictorial art, except for the interior of a cave called Gillon Point located on Agattu Island along the Aleutian Islands of Alaska.
The basalt slab is engraved with petroglyphs resembling female genitalia, lines, rectangles, and an anthropomorphic figure. These carvings have not been scientifically dated because the location is federally protected, but is believed to have originated in prehistoric times. Dixie West et. Al. theorizes that the sea lion rookery where the images were discovered may have been a ritualistic location, and the petroglyphs may have been a form of “magic” used to increase prey fertility, or they may just be a representation of fecundity (West et. Al. , 2011).
Jewelry has been considered an art form throughout history and across cultures, and the Prehistoric people of Alaska are no exception. Ancient Alaskan natives wore facial labrets as adornments to indicate social differentiation and feasibly territorial boundaries. The earliest labrets were discovered at the Margaret Bay site on the Aleutian Islands, and date back to 1500 BC, while similar adornments were uncovered on the Choris Peninsula from around 1200 BC (Fitzhugh et. Al. , 2009).
The fact that these pieces indicated social hierarchy or warned of territorial boundaries to outsiders proves the social complexity present in prehistoric times, and confirms how ancestral the roots of classism and social pyramids are. The most interesting expression of art found from the Arctic Prehistory is a 6,000-year-old woven basket that was discovered in mud along Thorne River, located on Prince of Wales Island, Alaska.
This unique artifact was woven out of organic fibers, and was miraculously preserved because of the anaerobic environment of silt. Shell pieces found in the container insinuate that the piece was used to collect mussels, and was not found with any similar items (Busby, 2003). The basket is hundreds of years older than any other basketry in the area, further making the find a fascinating anomaly, and bringing into question what other organic artistic materials could have deteriorated before archaeological discovery.
Overall, researching the artistic expressions of the Native Americans of the Prehistoric Arctic is challenging, firstly because there is no concrete, consistent agreement of what qualifies as the Prehistoric stage of humans, so for the purposes of this paper, the appearance of man until 500 BC were the set parameters (also referred to as the end of the Pre-Dorset culture period). Over 3000 years have passed since the end of this time period, making it likely that these prehistoric forms of art have faded or disappeared from the Arctic landscape due to the harsh conditions of the tundra, or these artifacts have not yet been discovered.
It is impossible to preserve every alteration humans have made while inhabiting Earth, so loss of material culture is inevitable, leaving gaps in human history that may never be filled. These harsh conditions also affect the accuracy of dating these artifacts. Atmospheric changes in carbon ratios can make it challenging, in addition to the various half-lives for the few remains that survive in Arctic sites, such as antler, bones, ivory, or charred fat.
There is also a chance that samples from coastal sites like driftwood can be deposited in middens after drifting for centuries in the sea, creating an inaccurate date (Maxwell, 1985). With better technology, there will be improvement, but there should always be some skepticism when trying to accurately age objects from unyielding ecosystems. Around 500 BC, the Pre-Dorset of the north transitioned into the Dorset, bringing a distinct artistic style along with new subsistence strategies, creating great development in the manipulation of the Arctic maritime environment.
Siberian inspired cord-impressed pottery start appearing around this era, while the first century sees extensive carving on harpoon heads, and ivory pieces carved into animals and human-like figures, also seen in Siberia (Fagan, 2005). The intensification of land and maritime hunting as well as the fact that the Norton stage of the Dorset people resided in permanent housing that were more densely packed impacted the daily life of the people in the Arctic.
This shift from semi-nomadism along the coast to constructing houses intended for long-term occupation freed up time previously spent traveling and ensuring short-term supplies, which could then be allocated towards expressions of art seen with the introduction of pottery, and eventually the evolving signs of social differentiation via umiaks, or open boats that were the first seen in the Old Bering Sea Stage of the Thule Tradition after 700 BC (Fagan, 2005). Although there is not an abundance of material evidence, that does not make the prehistoric expression of creativity any less important than modern day methods or works.
These cultures were and are still filled with complexities that are just as relevant as those in modern day life. With advances in technology, it is vital that these ancient sites be recognized and excavated, before climate change destroys the delicate material culture in the archaeological record, which is a real threat in the Arctic and throughout the rest of the world. In current times of social strife, marginalization, and oppression, it is more important than ever to learn about and recognize the roots of those around us, if only to understand others, in turn promoting alliance and unity in the human experience.
